[339], The Wusun are first mentioned by Chinese sources as vassals in the Tarim Basin of the Yuezhi,[340] another Indo-European Caucasian people of possible Tocharian stock. There are fewer cultural barriers to handling human biological materials than in many parts of the world, and Indian scientists have eagerly pursued research into the peopling of the subcontinent. Perhaps this was hallowed ground, an open-air cemetery, or a place where victims of an epidemic were dumped to prevent contagion. Fol 2002, p. 225: "Romanisation was total and complete by the end of the 4th century A.D. The Roopkund A individuals probably died in three or possibly four incidents between 700 and 950 A.D. This area includes the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Ukraine,[271] Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria, Slovakia,[272] Hungary and Southern Poland. The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins. [228][229][230] According to David W. Anthony, proto-Latins originated in today's eastern Hungary, kurganized around 3100 BCE by the Yamnaya culture,[231] while Kristian Kristiansen associated the Proto-Villanovans with the Velatice-Baierdorf culture of Moravia and Austria. Although Corded Ware is presumed to be largely derived from the Yamnaya culture, most Corded Ware males carried R1a Y-DNA, while males of the Yamnaya primarily carried R1b-M269. Archaeological research has unearthed a broad range of historical cultures that can be related to the spread of the Indo-European languages. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Egypt and the Middle East. The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave,[313] and took place in the third stage of the Indo-European migrations[2] from 800 BCE onwards. 1531 BCE per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based in Dur-Kurigalzu. (2015), German Corded Ware "trace ~75% of their ancestry to the Yamna. It is the solution one encounters in the, Jones et al. As bizarre as the result seemed, it nonetheless matched an analysis of bone collagen that the Max Planck Institute and the Harvard lab had done on the same individuals, to determine their diet. Although this identification is now generally considered mistaken, the name has become customary. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture. [54][55][56], It is thought that when Indo-Europeans expanded into Europe from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, they encountered existing populations that spoke dissimilar, unrelated languages. [82] According to Anthony, hunting-fishing camps from the lower Volga, dated 62004500 BCE, could be the remains of people who contributed the CHG-component, similar to the Hotu cave, migrating from northwestern Iran or Azerbaijan via the western Caspian coast. (2019): "Hindutva activists, however, have kept the Aryan Invasion Theory alive, because it offers them the perfect strawman, an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponents real argument [] The Out of India hypothesis is a desperate attempt to reconcile linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence with Hindutva sentiment and nationalistic pride, but it cannot reverse times arrow [] The evidence keeps crushing Hindutva ideas of history.". [112] According to Anthony, the first cattle herders arrived from the Danube Valley at ca. However, this hypothesis, on which Gimbutas' Idyllic Goddess scenario depends, is far from the foregone conclusion that she . According to Mallory and Adams, migrations southward founded the Maykop culture (c.35002500 BCE). This page was last edited on 13 April 2023, at 06:30. [1] Anthony regards the Khvalynsk culture as the culture that established the roots of Early Proto-Indo-European around 4500 BCE in the lower and middle Volga. Gimbutas defined and introduced the term "Kurgan culture" in 1956 with the intention of introducing a "broader term" that would combine Sredny Stog II, Pit Grave, and Corded ware horizons (spanning the 4th to 3rd millennia in much of Eastern and Northern Europe). Anthony considers it likely that the Maykop spoke a Northern Caucasian language not ancestral to Indo-European. Although the Tibetan border is only thirty-five miles north of Roopkund, the mountains form an impassable barrier. [176][70][177], During the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age, the cultures of Europe derived from Early European Farmers (EEF) were overwhelmed by successive invasions of Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the PonticCaspian steppe, who carried about 60% Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) and 40% Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer (CHG) admixture. [226][227] In particular various authors, like Marija Gimbutas, had noted important similarities between Proto-Villanova, the South-German Urnfield culture of Bavaria-Upper Austria[228] and Middle-Danube Urnfield culture. All hypotheses assume a significant period (at least 15002000 years) between the time of the Proto-Indo-European language and the earliest attested texts, at Kltepe, c.19th century BCE. Invasion versus diffusion scenarios (1980s onward), Alignment with Anatolian hypothesis (2000s), harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAnthony1986 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAnthony1991 (, The New Encyclopdia Britannica, 15th edition, 22:587588, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMallory1991 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFCavalli-Sforza2000 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPiazzaCavalli-Sforza2006 (, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia", "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians", "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", "An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers", "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years", "The Indo-Europeanization of Europe: the intrusion of steppe pastoralists from south Russia and the transformation of Old Europe", "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives", Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstmme, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurgan_hypothesis&oldid=1149228162, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2021, Articles containing Russian-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, 40003500: The Pit Grave culture (a.k.a. 2023 Cond Nast. [8], A recent analysis by Anthony (2019) also suggests a genetic origin of proto-Indo-Europeans (of the Yamnaya culture) in the Eastern European steppe north of the Caucasus, deriving from a mixture of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs) and hunter-gatherers from the Caucasus (CHGs). [4][11] Theodor Poesche had proposed the nearby Pinsk Marshes. [web 20], In the late 4th century, the Huns invaded the Germanic territories from the east, forcing many Germanic tribes to migrate into the Western Roman Empire. [140] It has been suggested that the Maykop people spoke a North Caucasian, rather than an Indo-European, language. [web 27], The Kassite language has not been classified. They mixed with EHG-people from the northern Volga steppes, forming the Khvalynsk culture, which "might represent the oldest phase of PIE.". Most researchers associate the Andronovo horizon with early Indo-Iranian languages, though it may have overlapped the early Uralic-speaking area at its northern fringe. Without written words, language transmission at the time would have depended largely on face-to-face contact, he says, suggesting the PIE speakers swept well across Europe and Asia. It is the main competitor to the Kurgan hypothesis, or steppe theory, which enjoys more academic favor. In order to appease the goddess, the royal couple embarked on a pilgrimage. 339345, G. Leitner, Australia's Many Voices: Australian EnglishThe National Language, 2004, pg. A complicating factor is the association of haplogroup R1b with the Yamnaya horizon and the Bell Beakers, while the Corded Ware horizon is strongly associated with haplogroup R1a. The team estimated that the area contained the remains of between three hundred and seven hundred people. [249] As an alternative to the model of a binary split into Slavic and Baltic, some linguists suggest that Balto-Slavic should be split into three equidistant nodes: Eastern Baltic, Western Baltic and Slavic. They then expanded into northern South Asia, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the Kushan Empire. But that's [unlikely to have been] the case, he says. [6][7], The eastern part of the Corded Ware culture contributed to the Sintashta culture (c.21001800 BCE), where the Indo-Iranian language and culture emerged, and where the chariot was invented. The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts", "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state", "Linguistic Evidence for Cultural Exchange in Prehistoric Western Central Asia", "A massive migration from the steppe brought Indo-European languages to Europe", "Ethnologue list of languages by number of speakers", "History of Europe: Greeks, Romans, and Barbarians", "Iranian art and architecture: Median period", "History of Mesopotamia: The Kassites in Babylonia", "The Paleolithic Continuity Theory on Indo-European Origins An Introduction in progress", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-European_migrations&oldid=1149594136. The Kurgan hypothesis is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia. As the villagers tell it, long ago Nanda Devi left her home to visit a distant kingdom, where she was treated discourteously by the king and queen. [79], Gimbutas' grouping is nowadays considered to have been too broad. It is quite possible that these bones were contaminated, he said, and the researchers were simply taking their provenance on trust: They didnt actually collect them themselves. Having been fascinated with the regions way of life for four decades, he also found the scientists perspective lacking. [319], Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the Andronovo culture. Sarmatian tribes, of whom the best known are the Roxolani (Rhoxolani), Iazyges (Jazyges) and the Alani (Alans), followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The Age of Migrations). Another possible group are the Cimmerians who are mostly supposed to have been related to either Iranian or Thracian speaking groups, or at least to have been ruled by an Iranian elite. According to Anthony, referring to Wang et al. [312] From the Chinese term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the Old Chinese *swin, which he compares to the Old Indo-Aryan avin "the horsemen", the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods. [2] The Iranian languages spread back throughout the steppes with the Scyths, and into Ancient Iran with the Medes, Parthians and Persians from c.800 BCE.[2]. Tocharian languages continued to be spoken in the city-states of the Tarim Basin, only becoming extinct in the Middle Ages. [304], From tribal and village beginnings, the state of Phrygia arose in the eighth century BCE with its capital at Gordium. Mats Roslund. Alexander left behind commanders and soldiers in some of the territories he conquered, many of whom stayed. However, given that the glottalic theory never caught on and there was little archaeological support, the Gamkrelidze and Ivanov theory did not gain support until Renfrew's Anatolian theory revived aspects of their proposal.[19]. On average, a Black person in America has an ancestry that is around eighty per cent African and twenty per cent European. A related branch invaded the territories of present-day Denmark and southern Sweden. [RS Note: The "Kurgan invasion" hypothesis is different from most of Gimbutas' other Goddess-related claims, in that there are some reasonable arguments to be made on its behalf, and more than a few scholars support it. In the early Middle Ages their territory was occupied by migrating Slavic people, and by east Asian steppe peoples. Kurgan hypothesis - Wikiwand [341][342] The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo Chinese: or Kunmi Chinese: ) Nandoumi (Chinese: ), capturing the Ili Valley from the Saka (Scythians) shortly afterwards. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were likely to have lived during the late Neolithic, or roughly the 4th millennium BCE. The same Y-chromosome turnover is also found in Americans of African descent. The evidence pointed to one conclusion: they were Mediterranean travellers who somehow got to Roopkund, where they died in a single, terrible event. Why were they in the mountains, and when and how had they died? Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. [332], Parpola postulates a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BCE, corresponding to the Cemetery H culture and the Copper Hoard culture, c.q. [164] The Pazyryk burials of the Ukok Plateau coincide with the apex of power of the Yuezhi, and the burials have therefore been attributed to them, which means that the Altai region was part of the Yuezhi Empire.[161]. [web 10]. The lake, some thought, was a place where holy men committed ritual suicide. There are also certain Indo-Aryan technical terms in a horse-training manual by a certain Kikkuli, dated to about 1400 BC. Thanks for reading Scientific American. "[170] The Yamnaya horizon represents the classical reconstructed Proto-Indo-European society with stone idols, predominantly practising animal husbandry in permanent settlements protected by hillforts, subsisting on agriculture, and fishing along rivers. (2018), the expansion of the Andronovo culture towards the BMAC took place via the Inner Asia Mountain Corridor. All rights reserved. Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo Their current distribution spreads across the Iranian plateau, and stretches from the Caucasus in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south, and from the Indus River in the east to eastern Turkey in the west a region that is sometimes called the "Iranian cultural continent", or Greater Iran by some scholars, and represents the extent of the Iranian languages and significant influence of the Iranian peoples, through the geopolitical reach of the Iranian empire.[352]. [note 30], Development of the Indo-European languages, Phylogenetic analysis of Indo-European languages, The Kurgan hypothesis and the "revised steppe theory", Steppe origins with south Caspian CHG-influences, Europe: migration into the Danube Valley (4200 BCE), Anatolia: Archaic Proto-Indo-European (Hittites; 45003500 BCE), Northern Caucasus: The Maykop culture (37003000 BCE), The Balkan-Danubian complex and the east-Carpathian contact-zone, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMallory1991 (, According to Gimbutas, these indigenous groups existed for nearly three millennia (c. 65003500 BCE, during the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Copper ages), consisting notably of the, David Anthony (1995): "Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security [] What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power [] A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. However, several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names,[web 28] and the Kassites worshipped several Indo-Aryan gods,[347][348] suggesting that the Kassites were under significant Indo-European influence. Whether we like it or not, people are measuring average differences among groups, he said. In Eastern Europe, Slavic and Germanic peoples assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. [135] At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[328]. "[207][note 20], Volker Heyd has cautioned to be careful with drawing too strong conclusions from those genetic similarities between Corded Ware and Yamna, noting the small number of samples; the late dates of the Esperstadt graves, which could also have undergone Bell Beaker admixture; the presence of Yamna-ancestry in western Europe before the Danube-expansion; and the risks of extrapolating "the results from a handful of individual burials to whole ethnically interpreted populations.
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